Dr. Fabio Bontadina

We present and exemplify the potential of the long-term community science (= citizen science) project StadtWildTiere (German for 'urban wildlife') in a transnational context. StadtWildTiere gathers opportunistic sightings of urban wildlife to raise awareness of, increase knowledge of, and promote biodiversity in urban areas across Central Europe. Transnationally similar methodologies enable direct comparisons concerning occurrence, distribution, and trends of urban wildlife populations and allow for new insights into and potential conservation and management measures of these otherwise unmonitored wildlife populations. We advocate the use and promotion for such community-based science projects, which align with the guiding principles of awareness, knowledge, and action. Such projects should whenever possible connect with similar initiatives in other countries to benefit from comparisons and get a strong impact on a transnational level.

Voigt et al. (2021) provide a thorough analysis of the restrictions inherent to the estimation of bat abundance from acoustic surveys, and conclude that limitations of acoustic monitoring impede the reliable evaluation of bat fatalities at wind turbines. We argue that acoustic data recorded at the nacelle of wind turbines have been experimentally validated as a useful and appropriate measure of bat collisions. Therefore, acoustic data can be used to estimate bat fatalities at wind turbines, provided a referenced and standardised protocol for data acquisition and analysis is used.

Voigt et al. (2021) zeigen in einer detaillierten Analyse Einschränkungen auf, die sich für die Bestimmung von Fledermausabundanz auf der Grundlage akustischer Erfassungen ergeben, und kommen zu dem Schluss, dass diese Einschränkungen keine zuverlässige Bewertung der an Windkraftanlagen versterbenden Fledermäuse erlauben. Wir argumentieren, dass in Experimenten validiert wurde, dass an der Gondel von Windenergieanlagen aufgezeichnete akustische Daten ein nützliches und geeignetes Maß für Fledermausschlagopfer sind. Daher können akustische Daten zur Abschätzung an Windenergieanlagen zu Tode kommender Fledermäuse verwendet werden, vorausgesetzt, es wird ein referenziertes und standardisiertes Protokoll für die Datenerfassung und -analyse verwendet.

In many areas, domestic cats are the most abundant predators of small vertebrates. Due to the potential impact on prey populations by cats, there are calls to investigate the effectiveness of visual and acoustic cues as measures to reduce the cat’s hunting efficiency. In this study, we complement previous studies on the efficacy of Birdsbesafe collar-covers (BBScc) in a so far not investigated Continental European setting and explore the effectiveness in combination with a bell. We also evaluate the tolerability of these devices by the cat and the acceptance by their owners. With a randomized and comparative citizen science-based approach we collected data from 26 households with 31 study cats, which were wearing either a BBScc or both a BBScc and a bell. The BBScc reduced the number of birds brought home by 37% (probability of reduction of 88%). The number of mammals brought home was reduced by 54-62%, but only with the additional bell (probability of reduction of >99%). About one fourth of the birds that could be dissected were found to have collided with a hard object prior to having been brought home by the cats. Our results are in line with previous findings from Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom and highlight the great potential of visual and acoustic cues in reducing hunting success in domestic cats also in Continental Europe. On the other hand, our result show that the number of prey brought home by cats overestimates their hunting bag, if scavenging is not considered. The majority of cat owners reported that their cats habituated quickly to the BBScc. However, frequent scratching in some cats indicates that some individuals may not habituate. Most participating cat owners had a positive attitude toward the BBScc and said that they were willing to use it after the study. However, cat owners reported that their social environment (e.g., neighbors, family, friends) was relatively skeptical, which indicates a need for communication. To conclude, commercially available devices with visual and acoustic stimuli are straightforward and effective ways to mitigate the potentially harmful effect of domestic cats on wildlife.

Habitat shift caused by human impact on vegetation structure poses a great threat to species which are specialized on unique habitats. Single layered beech forests, the main foraging habitat of Greater Mouse-eared Bats (Myotis myotis), are threatened by recent changes in forest structure. After this species suffered considerable population losses until the 1970s, their roosts in buildings are strictly protected. However, some populations are still declining. Thus, the spatial identification of suitable foraging habitat would be essential to ensure conservation policy. The aim of this study was (a) to verify the relevance of forest structural variables for the activity of M. myotis and (b) to evaluate the potential of LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) in predicting suitable foraging habitat of the species. We systematically sampled bat activity in forests close to 18 maternity roosts in Switzerland and applied a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) to fit the activity data to forest structure variables recorded in the field and derived from LiDAR. We found that suitable forest foraging habitat is defined by single layered forest, dense canopy, no shrub layer and a free flight space. Most importantly, this key foraging habitat can be well predicted by airborne LiDAR data. This allows for the first time to create nationwide prediction maps of potential foraging habitats of this species to inform conservation management. This method has a special significance for endangered species with large spatial use, whose key resources are hard to identify and widely distributed across the landscape.

Nelle selve castanili dell’Alto Malcantone è presente un’importante popolazione di Nottola di Leisler, specie forestale e migratrice, eterogeneamente distribuita in tutta Europa e considerata rara e potenzialmente minacciata in Svizzera. Nell’ambito del progetto SELPI (Selve e Pipistrelli), tra il 2001 e il 2006, sono stati condotti quattro studi con l’obiettivo di migliorare le conoscenze sull’ecologia della Nottola di Leisler e la sua conservazione nei castagneti dell’Alto Malcantone. A questo scopo sono state installate 200 cassette per pipistrelli in cinque selve castanili gestite e due abbandonate e sono state utilizzate tecniche radiotelemetriche, ciò che ha permesso di quantificare il numero di individui di Nottola di Leisler, identificare e caratterizzare i rifugi naturali, descrivere le aree di caccia e studiare la dinamica di popolazione. I risultati mostrano che la Nottola di Leisler è presente in Alto Malcantone soprattutto in primavera e in autunno, e che predilige i castagneti rispetto alle altre tipologie forestali, sia per i rifugi scelti negli alberi più grandi delle selve gestite sia per l’attività ci caccia. Nei castagneti da frutto dell’Alto Malcantone, le Nottole di Leisler si aggregano e si accoppiano, formando degli harem (un maschio con più femmine) in autunno, mentre lo svernamento non è confermato. È probabile che i castagneti rappresentino un sito di sosta durante la migrazione primaverile e autunnale, ma questa ipotesi resta da verificare. Il mosaico di ambienti con diversi gradi di copertura presente nella regione di studio, il recupero e la gestione delle selve castanili e delle altre aree forestali, così come la cura dei singoli castagni da frutto (potatura e conservazione delle cavità) sono fondamentali per la protezione di questa importante popolazione di pipistrelli.

In the chestnut orchards of the Alto Malcantone there is a large population of Leisler's bat, a forestry and migratory species, heterogeneously distributed throughout Europe and considered rare and nearly threatened in Switzerland. Within the project called SELPI (Selve e Pipistrelli), between 2001 and 2006, four studies have been carried out with the goal to improve knowledge about the ecology of the Leisler's bat and its conservation in the chestnut orchards of the Alto Malcantone. For this purpose, we installed 200 bat boxes in five managed and two abandoned woods and used radio-telemetric techniques, which allowed to quantify the number of individuals of Leisler's bat, identify and characterize the natural roosts, describe the hunting areas and study the population dynamics. The results showed that the Leisler’s bats are present in Alto Malcantone mainly in spring and autumn, and prefer chestnut forests over other forest types, both for their roosts in the larger trees of managed orchards and for hunting activity. In the chestnut forests in the Alto Malcantone, Leisler's bats aggregate and mate, forming harems (one male and several females) in autumn, while overwintering is not confirmed. It is likely that the chestnut orchards represent a stopover site during spring and autumn migration, but this hypothesis remains to be verified. The mosaic of open and closed environments present in the study region, the recovery and management of chestnut orchards and other forest areas, as well as the care of individual chestnut trees (pruning and cavities conservation) are essential for the conservation of this important population of bats.

Increasing urbanization and densification are two of the largest global threats to biodiversity. However, certain species thrive in urban spaces. Hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus have been found in higher densities in green areas of settlements as compared to rural spaces. With recent studies pointing to dramatically declining hedgehog numbers in rural areas, we pose the question: how do hedgehogs fare in urban spaces, and do these spaces act as refuges? In this study, recent (2016-2018) and past (1992) hedgehog abundance and distribution were compared across the city of Zurich, Switzerland using citizen science methods, including: footprint tunnels, capture‐mark recapture, and incidental sightings. Our analyses revealed consistent negative trends: Overall hedgehog distribution decreased by 17.6% ± 4.7%, whereas abundance declined by 40.6% (mean abundance 32 vs. 19 hedgehogs/km², in past and recent time, respectively), with one study plot even showing a 91% decline in this period (78 vs. 7 hedgehogs/km², respectively). We discuss possible causes of this rapid decline: increased urban densification, reduction of insect biomass, and pesticide use, as well as the role of increasing populations of badgers (a hedgehog predator) and parasites or diseases. Our results suggest that hedgehogs are now under increasing pressure not only in rural but also in urban areas, their former refuges.

Niedrig fliegende Fledermausarten sind durch den Strassenverkehr gefährdet. Zur Schadensminderung werden auch Fledermausschutzzäune vorgeschlagen. Sie sollen die Flughöhe bei der Querung einer Trasse steigern (Kollisionsschutz) oder Fledermäuse vom Trassenbereich fort zu punktuellen Querungshilfen hinleiten (Leiteinrichtung).
In Feldexperimenten wurde die Wirksamkeit von Schutzzäunen bei der Kleinen Hufeisennase (Rhinolophus hipposideros) geprüft. Dazu wurde im Umfeld von drei Kolonien eine Trasse mit beiderseits 4 m hohen Zäunen quer zu bevorzugten Flugrouten nachgestellt. Von 1126 Querungen waren lediglich 4,2% Überflüge über die Zäune, wobei der Anteil von Überflügen mit zunehmender Trassenbreite abnahm. Die wenigen Überflüge lagen meist im Kollisionsbereich bei < 3 m Höhe. Mehrheitlich flogen die Tiere Umwege, um Überflüge zu vermeiden. In einem fünfjährigen Monitoring an einer neu gebauten Staatsstrasse wurde die Wirksamkeit von Schutzzäunen als Leiteinrichtung in der Praxis bestätigt. Kritische Stellen zeigten sich an den Zaunenden und an Übergängen zu niedrigeren Bauwerken.
Für die Planungspraxis lässt sich ableiten, dass 4 m hohe Schutzzäune zwar keinen Kollisionsschutz für die eng strukturgebunden fliegende Kleine Hufeisennase bieten, jedoch über kurze Distanzen als Leiteinrichtung wirken. Feldexperimente sind geeignet, um die Wirksamkeit neuartiger Maßnahmen zur Schadensminderung vor dem Bau zu prüfen.

Are fences an effective mitigation measure to protect bats from traffic collisions?
Low flying bats are threatened by traffic collisions; fences along roads are suggested to mitigate this. The intention is to increase bat flight height (collision protection) or to lead bats along road verges to secure crossing points, such as tunnels and green bridges (redirection). We tested the effectivity of protective fences in field experiments with lesser horseshoe bats Rhinolophus hipposideros. We erected duplicated fences of 4 m height perpendicular to the main flight paths of three nursery colonies. Only 4.2% of the flights (N = 1126) crossed the fences; most of the bats preferred indirect routes to bypass the fences. The majority of the few crossing flights over the fences remained at a height < 3 m, exposing the bats to risk of collisions. At a newly built motorway access road, the effectiveness of the protective fences to redirect bats could be confirmed during a 5-year monitoring period. While most of the bats followed the guiding structures, the critical points appeared at the end of the fences and at the transitions to crossing points.
For planning purposes, we conclude that fences of 4 m height do not function to protect lesser horseshoe bats from collision. However, our results show that fences redirect these bats and, at least over short distances, may be used to lead bats to safe crossing points. We suggest evaluating the effectivity of new mitigation measures by field experiments.

Städte weisen eine hohe Vielfalt an Lebensräumen auf. Folglich ist hier die Artenvielfalt oft höher als im landwirtschaftlich intensiv genutzten Raum, wobei für Städte vermehrte Vorkommen von wärmeliebenden Arten aus südlichen Regionen typisch sind. Wie sich die zunehmend höheren Temperaturen auf die Stadtfauna auswirken, ist wenig untersucht. Bereits jetzt können jedoch Massnahmen umgesetzt werden, um das Grünvolumen zu erhöhen oder die Böden zu entsiegeln. Diese wirken der Erhitzung entgegen und fördern gleichzeitig die Biodiversität.

The riparian vegetation belt is one of the few remaining structures that provide coverage for wildlife in many anthropogenic landscapes. It provides shelter for many species and functions as corridors for dispersal. However, this landscape is increasingly utilised by humans for leisure activities. The loss of riparian vegetation with a concurrent increase of human disturbance in these habitats can pose a serious threat to wildlife.
One of the species potentially affected is the Eurasian otter Lutra lutra. In the Alps, otters are nocturnal and rest during the day when human activity is high. To study the impact of human presence on resting site selection in otters, we radio-tracked nine otters for up to 30 months in the eastern Central Alps of Austria. We analysed resting site selection in relation to human disturbance.
Altogether, we identified 285 resting sites scattered throughout the territories of the individual otters at an average distance of 144 m between sites. Almost all the resting sites (95%) were located in the natural riparian vegetation, making this the most important habitat for resting otters. We found evidence that human disturbance within these riparian habitats shapes resting site selection. Otters preferred narrow riparian strips when there was no human presence, but selected areas with a wider vegetation belt when the disturbance level increased. Outside the vegetation period, animals rested below ground more often than above, which suggests that vegetation also functions as visual cover.
Our study highlights the importance of the restoration of the natural riparian vegetation belt for the protection of wildlife, particularly where human activities are intense. We provide information for the effective conservation management of otters considering the combination of spatial distribution of resting sites and specific habitat requirements in the presence of human disturbance. Areas of conservation importance chosen in this way are likely to benefit other wildlife that utilise the riparian vegetation belt.

Single observations of badgers in urban areas have been interpreted as relicts of formerly rural populations that have merely survived urban encroachment. However, decades after the rise of urban fox populations in continental Europe, there is evidence from Switzerland which suggests that badgers may be following a similar trend. We present long-term traffic casualty data, a comparison over time of camera trap studies, and incidental observations collected in a Swiss citizen science project which indicate both an increase of badgers at the national scale as well as a range expansion into urban areas. Their rather delayed and slow increase, compared to foxes, might be based on slower reproduction and less flexible behavioural adaptations. Our data, however, suggest that badgers are recovering delayed from a population depression following the rabies epizootic of the 1960s and 70s and may be starting to expand their range through the colonisation of urban habitats, similar as foxes did during the 20^th century.

Each year, large numbers of bats move across Europe between their summer and winter areas, yet even though many of them are endangered and legally protected, we are unaware about many aspects of their migratory behaviour. Here, taking Nyctalus noctula as a model species, we used stable hydrogen isotopic values in fur (δ²H_f) as an endogenous marker to shed light on the migratory behaviour of more than 1000 bats from hibernacula across Central Europe. Specifically, we asked the following questions: how flexible is migration in temperate zone bats? Which generalmigration pattern do noctule bats follow? How repeatable and thus predictable is the migratory behaviour of individuals? Do morphological correlates of migration occur in bats? Our study confirmed that noctule bats engage in partial and female-biased migration across Europe, suggesting the strongest migration pressures for northern populations. Further, we revealed a combination of partial and differential migration patterns with highly variable migration distances which lead to a pronounced mixing of different source populations in hibernacula where mating occurs. Most individuals were consistent in their migration strategy over time, i.e. 86% could be repeatedly assigned to either long-distance or regional origin across years. This is consistent with our finding that the between-individual component explained 84% of the variation in δ²H_f values, suggesting specialized individual migratory behaviours and a strong natal philopatry. We discovered a positive correlation between forearm length and migration distance and support for sex-specific effects of migration on body condition. Our study elucidated migration patterns over large geographical scales, demonstrating that considerable numbers of migratory bats originating from distant populations depend on hibernacula across Central Europe, calling for international conservation management.

Urban areas are expanding worldwide, yet little is known how anthropogenic landscape fragmentation affects the connectedness and gene flow in urban wildlife. The European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is a ground dwelling mammal which also inhabits variable urban habitats. We investigated habitat connectivity and the spatial genetic structure of urban hedgehogs in the largest Swiss city. We addressed the following questions: i) At the city-scale, which prominent landscape elements affect the spatial distribution of genetic clusters? ii) Which landscape elements affect gene flow in an urban mammal within the clusters? iii) Does individual movement data improve the prediction of landscape-wide gene flow?
We used two Bayesian methods to examine the influence of water bodies and major traffic routes on genetic hedgehog clusters, using microsatellite data of 147 hedgehogs. Further, we used extensive movement data to parameterise single-path and multi-path connectivity models, which were then used to predict genetic distance between hedgehog individuals.
First, we found that both Bayesian methods consistently showed three distinct genetic clusters, separated by the main rivers and the parallel running transportation axes. Second, the best model indicates that gene flow was facilitated by urban green areas and hampered by all other land cover types. Third, multi-path models based on detailed GPS movement data clearly outperformed models based on a priori assumptions to predict gene flow.
Multi-path connectivity models based on movement data reveal to be a powerful tool to detect gene flow in highly fragmented habitats and could be a crucial step in implementing effective conservation measures.

Switzerland harbours 30 bat species. Of these, more than 80% have at least part of their habitat in forests. All 22 Swiss priority bat species are considered as forest species. These include twelve forest target species, for which a specific management is required. However, because of the secretive life of bats, missing information on the presence of bat species precluded the implementation of targeted conservation measures. In the last years, new broadband ultrasound recorders were developed as a powerful tool to detect and identify bat species in forests. The aim of our study was to use these new methods to record the presence of bat species in five forest nature reserves in the Canton Zug, to analyse their activity and to evaluate the site-specific differences. During 258 nights of data collection, we recorded 30,522 bat passes of at least twelve different bat species. 23.5% of the recorded bat passes were species from the Swiss Red List. At least three national priority forest target species were detected and three species were discovered for the first time in the Canton Zug. The variation of bat activity between the different forest reserves was high. In particular, areas with diverse and light forest communities, which are rich in dead and decayed wood, proved to be attractive habitats to bats. Alluvial forests, open waters and the presence of old oaks enhanced the diversity of species and bat activity in general. These results were used to define one target species for each forest nature reserve in the study sites and to promote species conservation measures.

Bats are a biodiverse mammal order providing key ecosystem services such as pest suppression, pollination, and seed dispersal. Bats are also very sensitive to human actions, and significant declines in many bat populations have been recorded consequently. Many bat species find crucial roosting and foraging opportunities in European forests. Such forests have historically been exploited by humans and are still influenced by harvesting. One of the consequences of this pressure is the loss of key habitat resources, often making forests inhospitable to bats. Despite the legal protection granted to bats across Europe, the impacts of forestry on bats are still often neglected. Because forest exploitation influences forest structure at several spatial scales, economically viable forestry could become more sustainable and even favor bats. We highlight that a positive future for bat conservation that simultaneously benefits forestry is foreseeable, although more applied research is needed to develop sound management. Key future research topics include the detection of factors influencing the carrying capacity of forests, and determining the impacts of forest management and the economic importance of bats in forests. Predictive tools to inform forest managers are much needed, together with greater synergies between forest managers and bat conservationists.

Carnivores are threatened worldwide through habitat loss and persecution. Habitat destruction is a major threat for the Eurasian otter. Its populations declined drastically in Europe but are now expanding again, including into the Alps. Here, flood prevention and hydropower have massively altered the riverine landscapes.
We evaluated the recovery potential of otters by testing the impact of major factors of habitat transformation and human disturbance on multiple spatial scales. In a hierarchical approach, we investigated spatial use and foraging habitat selection of nine otters in a long-term radiotracking study in the eastern Central Alps. We combined fine scale habitat selection analysis with individual movements by applying a step-selection function approach to the linear river system in a novel way.
At home range scale, otters preferred the main riverbeds to abstracted water and tributaries, whereas at fine scale, there was no significant preference for pristine sections within the watercourses. Otters selected for reservoirs in streams with a width smaller than 12 m and otherwise preferred foraging in residual waters and stretches with main discharge.

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The life cycle of the zoonotic cestode Echinococcus multilocularis depends on canids (mainly red foxes) as definitive hosts and on their specific predation on rodent species (intermediate hosts). Host densities and predation rates are key drivers for infection with parasite eggs. We demonstrate that they strongly depend on multi-faceted human-wildlife interactions: vaccination against rabies, elimination of top predators, and changing attitude towards wildlife (feeding) contribute to high fox densities. The absence of large canids, low hunting pressure, and positive attitudes towards foxes modify their anti-predator response ('landscape of fear'), promoting their tameness, which in turn facilitates the colonization of residential areas and modifies parasite transmission. Such human factors should be considered in the assessment of any intervention and prevention strategy.

To ensure viable species populations in fragmented landscapes, individuals must be able to move between suitable habitat patches. Despite the increased interest in biodiversity assessment in urban environments, the ecological relevance of habitat connectivity in highly fragmented landscapes remains largely unknown. The first step to understanding the role of habitat connectivity in urban ecology is the challenging task of assessing connectivity in the complex patchwork of contrasting habitats that is found in cities.
We developed a data-based framework, minimizing the use of subjective assumptions, to assess habitat connectivity that consists of the following sequential steps: (1) identification of habitat preference based on empirical habitat-use data; (2) derivation of habitat resistance surfaces evaluating various transformation functions; (3) modeling of different connectivity maps with electrical circuit theory (Circuitscape), a method considering all possible pathways across the landscape simultaneously; and (4) identification of the best connectivity map with information-theoretic model selection. We applied this analytical framework to assess habitat connectivity for the European hedgehog Erinaceus europaeus, a model species for ground-dwelling animals, in the city of Zurich, Switzerland, using GPS track points from 40 individuals.
The best model revealed spatially explicit connectivity "pinch points," as well as multiple habitat connections. Cross-validation indicated the general validity of the selected connectivity model. The results show that both habitat connectivity and habitat quality affect the movement of urban hedgehogs (relative importance of the two variables was 19.2% and 80.8%, respectively), and are thus both relevant for predicting urban animal movements.
Our study demonstrates that even in the complex habitat patchwork of cities, habitat connectivity plays a major role for ground-dwelling animal moverrient. Data-based habitat connectivity maps can thus serve as an important tool for city planners to identify habitat corridors and plan appropriate management and conservation measures for urban animals. The analytical framework we describe to model such connectivity maps is generally applicable to different types of habitat-use data and can be adapted to the movement scale of the focal species. It also allows evaluation of the impact of future landscape changes or management scenarios on habitat connectivity in urban landscapes.

Migration is adaptive if survival benefits are larger than costs of residency. Many aspects of bat migration ecology such as migratory costs, stopover site use and fidelity are largely unknown. Since many migrating bats are endangered, such information is urgently needed to promote conservation. We selected the migrating Leisler's bat (Nyctalus leisleri) as model species and collected capture-recapture data in southern Switzerland year round during 6 years. We estimated seasonal survival and site fidelity with Cormack-Jolly-Seber models that accounted for the presence of transients fitted with Bayesian methods and assessed differences between sexes and seasons. Activity peaked in autumn and spring, whereas very few individuals were caught during summer. We hypothesize that the study site is a migratory stopover site used during fall and spring migration for most individuals, but there is also evidence for wintering. Additionally, we found strong clues for mating during fall. Summer survival that included two major migratory journeys was identical to winter survival in males and slightly higher in females, suggesting that the migratory journeys did not bear significant costs in terms of survival. Transience probability was in both seasons higher in males than in females. Our results suggest that, similarly to birds, Leisler's bat also use stopover sites during migration with high site fidelity. In contrast to most birds, the stopover site was also used for mating and migratory costs in terms of survival seemed to be low. Transients' analyses highlighted strong individual variation in site use which makes particularly challenging the study and modelling of their populations as well as their conservation.

Assessing the ecological requirements of species coexisting within a community is an essential requisite for developing sound conservation action. A particularly interesting question is what mechanisms govern the stable coexistence of cryptic species within a community, i.e. species that are almost impossible to distinguish. Resource partitioning theory predicts that cryptic species, like other sympatric taxa, will occupy distinct ecological niches. This prediction is widely inferred from eco-morphological studies. A new cryptic long-eared bat species, Plecotus macrobullaris, has been recently discovered in the complex of two other species present in the European Alps, with even evidence for a few mixed colonies. This discovery poses challenges to bat ecologists concerned with planning conservation measures beyond roost protection. We therefore tested whether foraging habitat segregation occurred among the three cryptic Plecotus bat species in Switzerland by radiotracking 24 breeding female bats (8 of each species). We compared habitat features at locations visited by a bat versus random locations within individual home ranges, applying mixed effects logistic regression. Distinct, species-specific habitat preferences were revealed. P. auritus foraged mostly within traditional orchards in roost vicinity, with a marked preference for habitat heterogeneity. P. austriacus foraged up to 4.7 km from the roost, selecting mostly fruit tree plantations, hedges and tree lines. P. macrobullaris preferred patchy deciduous and mixed forests with high vertical heterogeneity in a grassland dominated-matrix. These species-specific habitat preferences should inform future conservation programmes. They highlight the possible need of distinct conservation measures for species that look very much alike.