Prof. Dr. Arthur Gessler

Persistent multiyear drought (MYD) events pose a growing threat to nature and humans in a changing climate. We identified and inventoried global MYDs by detecting spatiotemporally contiguous climatic anomalies, showing that MYDs have become drier, hotter, and led to increasingly diminished vegetation greenness. The global terrestrial land affected by MYDs has increased at a rate of 49,279 ± 14,771 square kilometers per year from 1980 to 2018. Temperate grasslands have exhibited the greatest declines in vegetation greenness during MYDs, whereas boreal and tropical forests have had comparably minor responses. With MYDs becoming more common, this global quantitative inventory of the occurrence, severity, trend, and impact of MYDs provides an important benchmark for facilitating more effective and collaborative preparedness toward mitigation of and adaptation to such extreme events.

Premise: Tree structure and function are constrained by and acclimate to climatic conditions. Drought limits plant growth and carbon acquisition and can result in "legacy" effects that last beyond the period of water stress. Leaf and twig-level legacy effects of past water abundance, such as that experienced by trees that established under wetter conditions are unknown.
Methods: In an 18-year forest irrigation experiment, we explored the lasting structural impact of past water richness on leaves and twigs of Pinus sylvestris using synchrotron-based X-ray microscopy. We compared 47 anatomical traits among never-irrigated control trees, trees irrigated for 18 years, and formerly irrigated trees, 7 years after their return to control-level water availability in this naturally dry forest.
Results: We found that legacy effects induced by a period of experimental irrigation continue to shape the structure of new leaves and twigs long after a sharp decrease in water availability. Legacy effects shaping twigs were present but dissipating, while leaf traits displayed long-lasting effects on structural strategy, with extreme values for traits associated with high water stress and low productivity.
Conclusions: Mature trees acclimating to an increasingly dry world may be at a disadvantage compared to young trees that have known only chronic drought. However, these young trees may be capable of thriving in sites of drought-related forest decline especially if planted while larger individuals are still present to support tree establishment. Without a legacy of past water abundance, trees in future forests may be better equipped to cope with our rapidly changing climate.

Wälder sind eine wichtige Kohlenstoffsenke, stehen jedoch durch sich häufende Klimaextreme wie Hitze und Trockenheit zunehmend unter Druck. Nach 25 Jahren Monitoring an den 19 Standorten des Programms «Langfristige Waldökosystem-Forschung» zeigen sich Veränderungen in der Waldstruktur und im Wachstum. Die Wälder wurden generell dichter und älter. Das Wachstum nahm sowohl in den Tief- als auch in den Hochlagen ab, vor allem bei Fichte, Tanne und Buche. Das Wachstum korreliert auf Einzelbaum- und auf Bestandesebene mit Bestandesstruktur (Bestandesdichte und Alter) und negativ mit Temperatur und Trockenheit. Verglichen mit den 1990er-Jahren weisen die Wälder an den untersuchten Standorten heute eine geringere Produktivität bei gleicher Bestandesdichte auf, was auf eine Abnahme der Standortskapazität hinweist.

25 years of growth development in 19 Swiss forests under increasing drought
Forests are an important carbon sink but are under increasing pressure due to more frequent climate extremes such as heat and drought. After 25 years of monitoring at the 19 sites of the Long-Term Forest Ecosystem Research programme (LWF), changes in forest structure and growth are evident. The forests have generally become denser and older. Growth decreased in both low- and high-altitude sites, especially for spruce, fir and beech. Growth was correlated with stand structure (stand density and age) at individual tree and stand level, as well as negatively with temperature and drought. Compared to the 1990s, the LWF forests today show lower productivity at the same stand density, which indicates a decrease in site capacity.

• Defoliation in Swiss forests is tending to increase, with strong annual fluctuations. This is apparent from the results of the Sanasilva Inventory and the Intercantonal Forest Observation Programme (WDB).
• An increase in mortality is observed in some tree species, this also being subject to annual fluctuations.
• The annual fluctuations can be partly explained by extreme events such as storms or drought years. The upward trends seen over the past ten years could intensify further if the extreme events predicted by climate models become more frequent.

Der Zustand der Baumkrone ist ein wichtiger Indikator für die Vitalität eines Baumes. In Schweizer Wäldern wird der Kronenzustand seit 1985 im Rahmen der Sanasilva-Inventuren und seit 1994 als Teil des Forschungsprogramms «Langfristige Waldökosystem-Forschung» erhoben. In dieser Periode hat die Vitalität des Waldes deutlich abgenommen. Starke und grossflächige Verschlechterungen zeigten sich insbesondere nach Trockensommern. Der Zustand der Baumkronen ist auch ein Indikator für die Absterbewahrscheinlichkeit eines Baumes in den Folgejahren. Hauptursache für den Vitalitätsverlust des Waldes ist der erhöhte Trockenstress, der sich besonders auf Wälder in tieferen Lagen und trockenen Regionen der Schweiz auswirkt. Ein Extrembeispiel dafür ist die Entwicklung der Waldföhre (Pinus sylvestris L.) im Wallis. Regional starb dort in mehreren Wellen ein grosser Teil der Waldföhren ab. Über die Jahre haben sich die Erkenntnisse zu Ursachen und Prozessen immer klarer abgezeichnet. Die immer längeren und wertvolleren Zeitreihen einer Vielzahl beobachteter Parameter erlauben es uns, auch einzelne Ereignisse und Entwicklungen in einen grösseren Kontext zu stellen und zu interpretieren. Kontinuierliche Langzeitbeobachtungen sind deshalb unersetzlich, um Veränderungen im Wald früh zu erkennen und zu verstehen und daraus entsprechende Empfehlungen an die Politik und Praxis abzuleiten.

Good things take time: findings on forest health from long-term observations

The condition of the tree crown is an important indicator of the vitality of a tree. In Swiss forests, the crown condition has been surveyed since 1985 as part of the Sanasilva inventories and since 1994 as part of the research programme "Longterm Forest Ecosystem Research". During this period, the vitality of the forest has declined significantly. Pronounced and widespread deterioration was particularly evident after dry summers. The condition of the tree crowns is also an indicator of the probability of a tree dying within a few years. The main reason for the loss of vitality in the forest is the increased drought stress, which particularly affects forests at lower altitudes and in dry regions of Switzerland. An extreme example of this is the development of the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Valais. In several waves, a large proportion of the Scots pines there died off regionally. Over the years, the findings on causes and processes have become increasingly clear. The increasingly longer and more valuable time series of a large number of observed parameters also allow us to place and interpret individual events and developments in a wider context. Continuous long-term observations are therefore indispensable for recognising and understanding changes in the forest at an early stage and for making appropriate recommendations to policymakers.

Il diradamento delle chiome nel bosco svizzero tende ad aumentare ed è associato a forti fluttuazioni annuali. È quanto emerge dai risultati dell'Inventario Sanasilva e dal Programma intercantonale di osservazione permanente (WDB).
• Per alcune specie arboree si osserva un aumento della mortalità, anch'essa soggetta a fluttuazioni annuali,
• riconducibili in parte agli eventi estremi come tempeste o annate siccitose. Le tendenze ormai in aumento da dieci anni potrebbero intensificarsi se gli eventi estremi previsti dai modelli climatici diventassero più frequenti.

• Die Kronenverlichtung in den Schweizer Wäldern nimmt, bei starken jährlichen Schwankungen, tendenziell zu. Das zeigen die Ergebnisse der Sanasilva-Inventur sowie der Interkantonalen Walddauerbeobachtung (WDB).
• Bei einigen Baumarten wird ein Anstieg der Mortalität beobachtet, der ebenfalls jährlichen Schwankungen unterworfen ist.
• Die jährlichen Schwankungen lassen sich zum Teil durch Extremereignisse wie Sturm oder ein Trockenjahr erklären. Die seit zehn Jahren ansteigenden Trends könnten sich weiter verstärken, wenn sich die von den Klimamodellen vorhergesagten Extremereignisse häufen.

• La défoliation dans les forêts suisses tend à augmenter, avec de fortes fluctuations annuelles. C'est ce qui ressort des résultats de l'inventaire Sanasilva
et de l'Observation intercantonale permanente des forêts (WDB).
• Une hausse de la mortalité est observée chez certaines essences, là aussi avec des fluctuations annuelles.
• Celles-ci s'expliquent en partie par des événements extrêmes tels que tempêtes ou années sèches. Les tendances à la hausse observées depuis dix ans pourraient s'accentuer si les événements prédits par les modèles climatiques s'accumulent.

• Die Häufung von warmen und trockenen Jahren wird zunehmend zu einer Belastung für den Wald. Selbst Baumarten, die bisher als trockenresistent galten, leiden darunter.
• Zwischenergebnisse des fünften Landesforstinventars zeigen eine Zunahme von geschädigten Bäumen. Hauptursachen sind Insekten und Krankheitserreger sowie Windwurf und Vitalitätsverlust nach Trockenheit.
• Das Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU) und die Eidg. Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft (WSL) haben Werkzeuge zur Baumartenwahl im Klimawandel entwickelt. Wichtige Massnahmen sind die Förderung von Mischwäldern und die Erhöhung der genetischen Vielfalt der Wälder.

• As hot, dry years become more frequent, forests are placed under stress. Even tree species previously considered drought-resistant are suffering as a result.
• Interim results of the fifth National Forest Inventory  show an increase in damaged trees. The main causes are insects and pathogens as well as windthrow and loss of vitality after drought.
• The Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) have developed tools for selecting tree species in a changing climate. Key measures include promoting mixed forests and increasing the genetic diversity of forests.

• La multiplication d'années chaudes et sèches pèse de plus en plus sur la forêt. Même des essences réputées jusqu'ici résistantes à la sécheresse en souffrent.
• Les résultats intermédiaires du cinquième inventaire forestier national montrent une hausse des arbres endommagés, principalement en raison d'insectes, d'agents pathogènes, de chablis et de pertes de vitalité dues à la sécheresse.
• L'Office fédéral de l'environnement (OFEV) et l'Institut fédéral de recherches sur la forêt, la neige et le paysage (WSL) ont développé des outils pour un choix d'essences adaptées aux changements climatiques. La promotion de forêts mélangées et l'augmentation de la diversité génétique des forêts sont des mesures importantes.

• La frequenza di anni caldi e secchi sta diventando sempre più problematica per il bosco. Ne stanno risentendo anche le specie un tempo considerate resistenti alla siccità.
• I risultati intermedi del quinto Inventario forestale nazionale indicano un aumento degli alberi danneggiati,
soprattutto a causa di insetti e agenti patogeni ma anche per schianti da vento e perdita di vitalità in seguito alla siccità.
• L'Ufficio federale dell'ambiente (UFAM) e l'Istituto federale di ricerca per la foresta, la neve e il paesaggio
(WSL) hanno sviluppato degli strumenti per selezionare specie arboree adatte al cambiamento climatico. Le principali misure consistono nella promozione dei boschi misti e nell’incremento della loro diversità genetica.

Wälder haben eine essenzielle Bedeutung für die Biodiversität, die Klimaregulation und weitere Ökosystemleistungen. Das Programm «Langfristige Waldökosystem-Forschung» der Eidgenössischen Forschungsanstalt WSL hat im Verlauf der vergangenen drei Jahrzehnte wertvolle Erkenntnisse über die komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen biotischen, abiotischen und anthropogenen Faktoren gewonnen. Luftverschmutzung und Klimawandel stellen eine erhebliche Belastung für die Wälder dar, was zu Bodenversauerung, Nährstoffungleichgewichten und erhöhter Baumsterblichkeit führt. Technologische Innovationen wie Fernerkundung, Echtzeitüberwachung und Machine Learning machen detaillierte Analysen möglich, die ein verbessertes Verständnis der Waldökosystemprozesse unter verschiedenen Klimaszenarien zulassen. Die Ergebnisse aus drei Jahrzehnten «Langfristige Waldökosystem-Forschung» lieferten wertvolle Leitlinien für Entscheidungsträgerinnen und Waldbesitzer. Angesichts der steigenden Umweltbelastungen ist die Erhaltung resilienter Wälder entscheidend, um ihre Schutz- und Regulierungsfunktionen langfristig zu sichern.

30 years of Long-Term Forest Ecosystem Research: synthesis and outlook
Forests are of vital importance for biodiversity, climate regulation and other ecosystem services. The Long-Term Forest Ecosystem Research (LWF) conducted by the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) over the past three decades has provided valuable insights into the complex interactions between biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic factors. Air pollution and climate change are a significant burden on forests, leading to soil acidification, nutrient imbalances and increased tree mortality. Technological innovations such as remote sensing, real-time monitoring and machine learning allow for detailed analyses that provide an improved understanding of forest ecosystem processes under different climate scenarios. The results from three decades of LWF research provided valuable guidelines for decision-makers and forest owners. In the face of increasing environmental pressures, maintaining resilient forests is crucial to ensure their protective and regulatory functions in the long term.

Rates of tree mortality are increasing globally, with implications for forests and climate. Yet, how and why these trends vary globally remain unknown. Developing a comprehensive assessment of global tree mortality will require systematically integrating data from ground-based long-term forest monitoring with large-scale remote sensing. We surveyed the metadata from 466 865 forest monitoring plots across 89 countries and five continents using questionnaires and discuss the potential to use these to estimate tree mortality trends globally. Our survey shows that the area monitored has increased steadily since 1960, but we also identify many regions with limited ground-based information on tree mortality. The integration of existing ground-based forest inventories with remote sensing and modelling can potentially fill those gaps, but this requires development of technical solutions and agreements that enable seamless flows of information from the field to global assessments of tree mortality. A truly global monitoring effort should promote fair and equitable collaborations, transferring funding to and empowering scientists from less wealthy regions. Increasing interest in forests as a natural climate solution, the advancement of new technologies and world-wide connectivity means that now a global monitoring system of tree mortality is not just urgently needed but also possible.

• We investigate the impact of a 20-yr irrigation on root water uptake (RWU) and drought stress release in a naturally dry Scots pine forest.
• We use a combination of electrical resistivity tomography to image RWU, drone flights to image the crown stress and sensors to monitor soil water content.
• Our findings suggest that increased water availability enhances root growth and resource use efficiency, potentially increasing trees' resistance to future drought conditions by enabling water uptake from deeper soil layers.
• This research highlights the significant role of ecological memory and legacy effects in determining tree responses to environmental changes.

Das Monitoring-Netzwerk TreeNet untersucht mit automatischen Sensoren an Baumstämmen (Punktdendrometern) den Wasserhaushalt und das Wachstum von Waldbäumen an rund 70 Standorten in der Schweiz (inkl. 13 LWF-Standorten). Alle zehn Minuten werden an über 500 Bäumen die Stammradien in Mikrometergenauigkeit gemessen sowie Daten in Atmosphäre und Boden gesammelt. Hier zeigen wir charakteristische physiologische Durchschnittswerte von neun Baumarten basierend auf Einzelbaummessungen (1998–2023). Unterschiede in den Art- (Wachstumsraten, Baumwasserdefizit) und Standorteigenschaften (Niederschlag und Temperatur während der Wachstumsphase) bestimmen das Gedeihen der Bäume. Das durchschnittliche Jahreswachstum wurde hauptsächlich durch die Anzahl der Wachstumsstunden pro Jahr und die mittlere Wachstumsrate pro Stunde erklärt. Die Douglasie und die Tanne zeigten die grössten Zuwächse. Die Fichte hatte die höchste Wachstumsrate pro Stunde, erreichte aber aufgrund der wenigen Wachstumsstunden einen nur durchschnittlichen Jahreszuwachs. Die Wasserspeicherkapazität eines Baumes – hergeleitet aus der maximalen, täglichen Schrumpfung des Stammes – und das Baumwasserdefizit sind weitere Faktoren, die das Wachstum beeinflussen. Innerhalb derselben Art deutet eine grössere Wasserspeicherkapazität auf mehr Wachstum hin. Über alle neun untersuchten Arten hinweg wachsen jedoch Arten mit einer generell kleinen Wasserspeicherkapazität am besten (Douglasie, Tanne, Buche). Wir zeigen, wo die TreeNet-Bäume am besten wachsen (Schweizer Mittelland) und wo sie unter dem grössten Trockenstress leiden (Wallis und Nordschweiz).

Forest soils harbor hyper-diverse microbial communities which fundamentally regulate carbon and nutrient cycling across the globe. Directly testing hypotheses on how microbiome diversity is linked to forest carbon storage has been difficult, due to a lack of paired data on microbiome diversity and in situ observations of forest carbon accumulation and storage. Here, we investigated the relationship between soil microbiomes and forest carbon across 238 forest inventory plots spanning 15 European countries. We show that the composition and diversity of fungal, but not bacterial, species is tightly coupled to both forest biotic conditions and a seven-fold variation in tree growth rates and biomass carbon stocks when controlling for the effects of dominant tree type, climate, and other environmental factors. This linkage is particularly strong for symbiotic endophytic and ectomycorrhizal fungi known to directly facilitate tree growth. Since tree growth rates in this system are closely and positively correlated with belowground soil carbon stocks, we conclude that fungal composition is a strong predictor of overall forest carbon storage across the European continent.

In ecohydrology, water isotopologues are used to assess potential sources of root water uptake by comparing xylem water signatures with source water signatures. Such comparisons are affected by the variability and uncertainty of the isotope signatures of plant water and water sources. The tree-scale and stand-scale variabilities of the isotope signatures in stem xylem water are often unknown but are important for sampling design and uncertainty estimation in assessing the sources of tree water uptake. Here, we quantified tree-scale and stand-scale variabilities of xylem water isotope signatures in beech, oak and spruce trees in a mature forest on the Swiss plateau. For stem xylem water, sub-daily replicates and replicates in different cardinal directions showed no systematic differences, but we found systematic differences with sampling height. The observed variability of isotope signatures at different heights along the stem suggests that water residence times within trees need to be considered, along with their effects on the isotope signatures in different compartments (stem, branches, leaves). Further, concerning the hydrogen signatures, we found height- and species-specific offsets (SW-excess δ²H). Stem xylem water's tree-scale variability was similar in magnitude to its stand-scale variability and smaller than the variabilities in branch xylem and bulk soil water around each tree. Xylem water from stem cores close to the ground, therefore, can give a more precise estimate of the isotopic signal of the most recent root water uptake and facilitate more accurate source water attribution.

Forests are undergoing increasing risks of drought-induced tree mortality. Species replacement patterns following mortality may have a significant impact on the global carbon cycle. Among major hardwoods, deciduous oaks (Quercus spp.) are increasingly reported as replacing dying conifers across the Northern Hemisphere. Yet, our knowledge on the growth responses of these oaks to drought is incomplete, especially regarding post-drought legacy effects. The objectives of this study were to determine the occurrence, duration, and magnitude of legacy effects of extreme droughts and how that vary across species, sites, and drought characteristics. The legacy effects were quantified by the deviation of observed from expected radial growth indices in the period 1940–2016. We used stand-level chronologies from 458 sites and 21 oak species primarily from Europe, north-eastern America, and eastern Asia. We found that legacy effects of droughts could last from 1 to 5 years after the drought and were more prolonged in dry sites. Negative legacy effects (i.e., lower growth than expected) were more prevalent after repetitive droughts in dry sites. The effect of repetitive drought was stronger in Mediterranean oaks especially in Quercus faginea. Species-specific analyses revealed that Q. petraea and Q. macrocarpa from dry sites were more negatively affected by the droughts while growth of several oak species from mesic sites increased during post-drought years. Sites showing positive correlations to winter temperature showed little to no growth depression after drought, whereas sites with a positive correlation to previous summer water balance showed decreased growth. This may indicate that although winter warming favors tree growth during droughts, previous-year summer precipitation may predispose oak trees to current-year extreme droughts. Our results revealed a massive role of repetitive droughts in determining legacy effects and highlighted how growth sensitivity to climate, drought seasonality and species-specific traits drive the legacy effects in deciduous oak species.

A recent increase in the intensity and frequency of climate extremes under global warming is likely to continue to cause unprecedented rates of forest dieback in different habitats around the world. As one of the most widely distributed tree species, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) has experienced widespread mortality over the past two decades and many of those forests transitioned to broadleaved dominance inducing massive changes in ecosystem functioning and services. Here, we synthesize the factors and processes underlying drought-induced Scots pine mortality. Our review identifies agreement across studies on the impact of drought, prevalence of crown defoliation prior to mortality, influence of stand density and ecological growth memory, as well as the presence of biotic agents, such as insects and mistletoes. Studies generally agree that drought triggered self-thinning plays an important role. The post-mortality stand density seems far below the comparable pre-drought numbers of trees per hectare, which indicates a significant reduction in the productivity of forest stands. Most surprisingly, we show while Scots pine mortality in the early-2000 s occurred at the species' arid distribution limits, high mortality rates are now also reported from the species' climatic optimum where growth conditions used to be more beneficial. Extreme droughts such as 2003, 2015 and 2018 are causing this observed pattern, which may indicate that an increase in frequency of extreme drought could challenge Scots pine trees growing in climatically favorable areas. Our review indicates that tree level acclimation strategies such as lowering leaf area and enhancing water-use efficiency as well as stand-level adjustments including self-thinning are apparently not sufficient to prevent Scots pine mortality induced by frequent extreme droughts and associated impact of biotic agents (insects and mistletoes). However, we still lack clear understanding in linking functional strategies of the species to local climatic variation to fully understand the capabilities of the species to grow and survive in the future climate.