published in: KORA Bericht Nr. 3, April 1998: "Workshop on Human Dimension in Large Carnivore Conservation"
Marcel Hunziker, Eva Egli
& Astrid Wallner
Swiss Fed. Inst. of Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland
Introduction
Many European regions experience an increase of predator populations (Meyer 1996): Once exterminated species were actively reintroduced - such as the lynx - or returned without human help - such as the wolf. This phenomenon of the return of predators is primarily known from rural areas. However, urban areas are as well confronted with the invasion (Harris & Rayner 1986): In Switzerland the increase of the red fox population particularly takes place in sub-urban and urban areas (Hotz et al. 1995).
Nature conservationists may welcome these developments as a sign of successful nature restoration efforts but the broad public might well be ambivalent on this topic (Bath 1991; Boitani & Zimen 1979; Kellert 1985; Mutter 1996; WWF Schweiz 1994):
• The invasion of wolf and lynx to rural zones leads on the one hand to specific problems of public acceptance since the local population - in particular sheep farmers - are directly and negatively affected by the predation of domestic animals. On the other hand the majority of citizens in Central Europe - which predominantly live in urban areas - might well accept the increase of predator populations in remote rural zones.
• The predator invasion to urban areas is likely to provoke ambivalent reactions in the urban population as well: Some treat foxes like pets and feed them whereas others are confused about the presence of an unknown, wild predator in their direct vicinity. This fear is often related to the (small) risk of infection with dangerous zoonoses by contacting fox-excrement and is most present under family gardeners, i.e. in the group, which is most affected by the fox invasion and most endangered by the zoonoses.
Thus, public agencies and NGO‘s are challenged to conduct public relation campaigns to rise acceptance of the predator invasions, to ensure predators‘ presence in the long run and to enable a friendly coexistence of humans and predators. The success of such campaigns is strongly dependent of the following prerequisites:
• knowledge on frequency and distribution of lacking acceptance in the population
• thorough knowledge of the dimensions of the relationship between humans and predators in general and, in particular, of the underlying reasons for lacking or existing acceptance.
• knowledge of adequate approaches of public campaigns
Since these prerequisites do not completely exist for the specific context of Switzerland, the aim of our project is to elaborate lacking knowledge and, thus, to answer the following research questions:
• What‘s the frequency of lacking acceptance in the Swiss population?
• What‘s the regional distribution of this phenomenon?
• What‘s the distribution of the phenomenon regarding socio-economic factors?
• What are people‘s ideas about predators?
• Which role plays mythology?
• How do people cope with the presence of predators in their vicinity?
• In particular: What are the driving forces for lacking or existing acceptance?
• And: Are acceptance problems connected with direct involvement or are they shared by the majority of the population?
• How should a public relation campaign be designed to have a long-lasting positive effect?
Methods
Three research phases can be distinguished in our social science study, namely an inductive, a deductive and a transfer-control phase.
In the inductive research phase we conduct three case studies, each considering the acceptance problems of the presence of one species, i.e. wolf, lynx and 'urban' fox. These case studies are performed in collaboration with other projects.
The purpose of this inductive phase is to explore the problem and to gain deep insight into various forces that cause existing or lacking acceptance. The investigations are therefore conducted with the aid of qualitative interviews (i.e., a procedure similar to the 'focused interview' of Merton & Kendall (1956) was chosen). This technique is most appropriate for exploration due to its principle of greatest possible openness and flexibility. According to a check-list, open ended questions are asked. They serve as an animation for the interviewees to report on their attitudes and feelings. Follow-up probes are used to get more details about the statements and paraphrases for their verification.
After transcribing, the interviews contents are analysed according to the approach of the 'Grounded Theory' of Glaser & Strauss (1967). The full text is screened line by line in order to generate categories, each representing a generalised concrete aspect of the relationship of humans and predators (Richards & Richards 1994). Categories that are dominant are cross-checked with the aid of the remaining categories. After necessary revisions of the key categories, the text is screened for contributions to this key categories only.
The interviewees are selected according to the 'theoretical-sampling' strategy (Strauss 1991), i.e. persons with widely differing positions or opinions are selected. This strategy allows to investigate most of the existing attitudes without questioning a representative sample of thousands of persons (Lamnek 1989). This approach, however, doesn‘t yield data on frequencies and distributions
In order to get information on frequencies and distributions of the different attitudes and to test hypotheses derived from the inductive phase a deductive research phase will be conducted: A representative sample (for Switzerland) of at least 1000 persons will be selected by random. The interviewees will be contacted by telephone and have to answer questions of a standardised questionnaire. The questions will be constructed according to well established guidelines described in the literature (Atteslander 1984). Sampling and interviewing will be performed by a specialised institute which is able to conduct computer-aided telephone interviews. Data will be analysed statistically.
In a final
transfer-control phase appropriate acceptance-rising-measures (which
will be developed basing on the findings of the preceding phases) will be suggested
to public agencies and NGO‘s that are currently running public relation
campaigns. Qualitative interviews (see inductive research phase) with persons
involved in the transfer process are used to check weather the suggested measures
have a positive effect or not. Thus, the results of this phase aim at further
improving the acceptance-rising-measures.
Case study 'urban' fox
The phenomenon of the return of predators is primarily known from rural areas. But, as stated above, urban areas are as well confronted with the invasion. And there seem to be similar acceptance problems as with the wolf and the lynx in rural zones. Thus, public and private institutions undertake as well efforts to rise acceptance of the urban fox and need therefore basic knowledge about the relationship between fox and man.
Besides the general research questions some specific aspects will be analysed additionally, i.e.:
• How do city people - which may agree with predator invasions to rural areas - cope with direct confrontation to 'pure nature'?
• How do they cope with the small but real threat of zoonoses? What‘s the weight of this threat compared with imagined threats, such as 'wolf-attacks'?
• How do they react to the given fact that it is merely impossible to exterminate the fox?
The close collaboration with the 'infox'-module of the 'integrated fox project' allows to conduct theoretical sampling in the investigation area 'Zurich' very efficiently since people who contact the 'fox hot line' are characterised by a small questionnaire. In this case study the qualitative interviews will be supplemented by analyses of school essays in order to specifically investigate the attitudes of children. This step is important, since children are more and differently affected by the fox‘ presence than adults.
Some preliminary findings of the study:
• The perception of the risk of infection with echinococcus multilocularis is a driving factor for fox acceptance.
• Informing people is only effective if an information deficit is coupled with a generally positive attitude towards fox presence.
• The degree of autonomy that nature is allowed to have represents an important background for the 'fox-attitudes'.
Case study lynx
The presence of the lynx in rural zones leads on one hand to specific problems of public acceptance since the local population - in particular sheep farmers - are directly and negatively affected by the predation of domestic animals. On the other hand the majority of citizens in Central Europe - which predominantly live in urban areas - seems to accept the lynx; at least there are no indications on problems. Thus, this case study focused on the attitudes of the rural population, particularly the sheep farmers of the investigation area 'Simmental'. The main reason, why the 'Simmental' was chosen, is that the lynx occurs there as a real problem.
The selection of interview partners followed also the principles of the theoretical sampling. As this case study focused on the attitudes of the sheep farmers and breeders, only such persons were considered, when extreme positions, average ones and very special ones were chosen. To find persons, who represent the different positions, the collaboration with the 'lynx project' and some wildlife wardens of the region was very helpful.
Preliminary findings of the first interviews suggest that knowledge, perception of nature and materialism are key factors governing attitudes towards the lynx among sheep farmers:
• Knowledge and attitude show quite a clear relation. The more a person knows about the lynx and its behaviour, the better is the acceptance of it. But there is something else interfering with this fact. Interview partners showed a great suspicion of what the scientists tell them and others are not really interested in what is talked and written about this matter. One possible reason for this suspicion could be the classical conflict between scientists and laymen (novice, amateur). Nevertheless this needs to be more substantiated , but it is certainly of importance concerning the improvement of the acceptance of the lynx.
• Another very important factor is their perception of nature. If people saw nature as an absolute power where we depend upon almost helplessly, then the lynx and his introduction is one of the facts that are very unpleasant but one can‘t change or do anything against it. On the other hand, if nature was seen at as beautiful, for one‘s personal pleasure and use, then the lynx does not fit in, for he disturbs the use of nature. If one saw both parts, the power that lies in nature and the beauty and use of it, as equals, then the lynx belongs to nature. He is not very welcome either, but he is given a right to be there. What they consider as a problem is merely the question, if there is still room for this animal in our civilised world.
• The third factor is the materialism. The more materialistic one is the more he is against lynx, for the animal causes losses. This seems logical, but it also needs more proof in further data.
There are several other factors, which could influence the acceptance of the lynx, like fear for oneself or others (children), economic repression, if the person is a local. They all need to be more substantiated in the pursuit of this work.
Case study wolf
The invasion of the wolf leads - just as the lynx' presence - primarily to acceptance problems with the rural population, i.e. with the sheep farmers. In addition, the re-immigration of the wolf leads to opposition in the broad population as well. It could be possible, that people are more frightened by the wolf than by the lynx. One reason for this might be the role predators play in mythology. Thus, in this case study we focus on the image of the wolf in the broad population (not only in those parts directly affected), in particular on the influence of mythology on the attitudes.
Since 'theoretically sampling' interviewees out of the entirety of the Swiss population is rather difficult, 'expert-interviews' with representatives of nature conservation groups, sheep farmer and hunter associations and the tourism industry will be conducted as a first step in order to get the necessary knowledge about the principally existing positions and opinions. In a second step 'theoretically sampled' lay persons will then be interviewed. Since this study has just started there are no results to be presented yet.
References
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Bath, A.J. 1991. Public attitudes in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho toward Wolf restoration in Yellowstone National Park.-Transactions of North American Wildlife and Natural Recources Conferences 56: 91-95.
Boitani, L. & Zimen, E., 1979. The role of public opinion in wolf management. In: E. Klinghammer (ed.): The behaviour and ecology of Wolves. Garland STPM Press, New York.
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Harris, S. & Rayner, J.M.V., 1986: Urban fox (Vulpes vulpes) population estimates and habitat requirements in sevral British cities. Journal of Animal Ecology 55: 575-591.
Hotz, T., Bontadina, F. & Gloor, S., 1995. Füchse - Wildtiere in der Stadt? Gartenbauamt Zürich.
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